|
Annotated
Bibliography on
Terrorism
In order to
contribute to an understanding of the tragic attacks on New York and
Washington, and to help scholars prepare for the upcoming GECHS conference
on human vulnerability and political violence, we have compiled an
annotated bibliography on terrorism. Several of the works analyze the
nature of contemporary terrorism and the capabilities of the United States
to combat it; others describe the Middle Eastern and radical Islamic
contexts for much of this activity; others present empirical analyses of
the patterns of terrorism; and still others examine epistemological
questions, such as how to define terrorism and how it is socially
constructed.
The bibliography is comprised of journal articles,
books and government documents. This Bibliography was assembled in 2002 by
Ted Gaulin, Department of Political Science, University of California,
Irvine.
Journal Articles
Bacevich, Andrew. 2001. Terrorizing the truth.
Foreign Policy (July/August): 74-75.
By common consent, terrorism has emerged
as the defining threat of the 21st century—in the words of
former President Bill Clinton, “the enemy of our generation.” One purpose
of the US State Department’s annual report, Patterns of Global Terrorism,
is to substantiate that claim. Salted with statistics, charts, stern
warnings, and calls to action, Patterns has become something of an event,
its release each spring inspiring a flurry of newspaper reports and
commentaries that amplify its message. In its effort to portray terrorism
as a global contagion, however, the report not only exaggerates and
distorts reality but also obscures the political context in which specific
episodes of terrorism actually occur.
Bailey, Kathleen. 1996. Policy options for combating
chemical-biological terrorism. Politics and the Life Sciences 15
(2): 185-187.
This article is a response to an article
on chemical and biological terrorism by Jonathan Tucker that appears in
this same issue of Politics and the Life Sciences. The author
argues that Tucker’s focus on detecting the development, production, and
deployment of chemical-biological (C-B) weapons fails as a viable policy
option to combat the threat of C-B terrorism. Instead, the US government
needs to adopt effective policies, such as organizing resources for the
detection of the agent, tracking of the cloud, removal and treatment of
victims and decontamination in the event of a C-B attack. Steps taken by
the US federal government to address C-B terrorism are outlined.
Beres, Louis. 1995. The meaning of terrorism for the
military commander. Comparative Strategy 14 (3): 287-300.
The growing
problem of terrorism and the lack of its proper understanding is causing
difficulties in identifying and carrying out specific counterterrorism
operations. There is a need to place greater emphasis on the
conceptualization of terrorism and to reject geopolitical definitions to
enable the military commanders to properly allocate resources for better
success on the field. Giving more attention to the meaning of terrorism
will accrue operational benefits and increase the respect for justice and
law.
Betts, Richard. 1998. The new threat of mass
destruction. Foreign Affairs. 77 (1): 26-42.
The
risk of a catastrophic exchange of nuclear missiles has receded. Yet the
chances of some use of weapons of mass destruction have risen. Chemical
weapons are a lesser threat, but more likely. A vial of anthrax dispersed
over Washington could kill as many as three million. Traditional
deterrence will not stop a disgruntled group with no identifiable address
from striking out at America. The United States must pull back from
excessive foreign involvements and begin a program of civil defense to
reduce casualties in the event the unthinkable happens.
Binder, Patrice. 1996. Biological-chemical terrorism:
the threat and possible Countermeasures. Politics and the Life Sciences
15 (2): 188-189.
This article is a response to an article
on chemical and biological terrorism by Jonathan Tucker that appears in
this same issue of Politics and the Life Sciences. The author
believes that Tucker has given an insightful analysis of the threat of
chemical and biological (C-B) terrorism. Fundamentalist religious groups
are more likely to use C-B agents for terrorist attacks than politically
motivated terrorists. Reinforcing the Biological Weapons Convention
through a verification regime may prove ineffective but international
cooperation on detecting the capabilities and objectives of terrorists can
help deter C-B terrorism. Legislation controlling the circulation of
biological produce and chemical compounds is another possible
countermeasure.
Bouchat, Clarence. 1996. A fundamentalist Islamic
threat to the West. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 19: 339-352.
The article
argues that Western democracies exaggerate the threat of Islam, which
includes diverse nations and has many values similar to those of
Christianity.
Bowers, Stephen & Kimberly Keys. 1998. Technology and
terrorism: The new threat for the millennium. Conflict Studies May
1998: 1-24.
The article
considers the emergence and proliferation of computer, biological, and
chemical terrorism as a consequence of technological innovations, and the
security threat posed by non-traditional, namely non-state and
transitional, actors. The author assesses the potential for cyber,
biological and chemical attacks, as well as possible warning systems to
help thwart such attacks.
Brophy-Baermann, Bryan & John Conybeare. 1994.
Retaliating against terrorism: Rational expectations and the optimality of
rules versus discretion. American Journal of Political Science 38
(1): 196-210.
The
application of rational expectations theory to policies of retaliation
against terrorism suggests that only unexpected retaliations will be
effective in causing terrorist attacks to deviate from their natural rate
and that there is a time inconsistency problem in responding to terrorism.
Since the optimal response rate to terrorism would never be believable to
the terrorists, the first best policy may be for the government
retaliating against terrorism to have its response rate constrained by an
externally imposed rule. A time series intervention model of terrorist
attacks against Israel supports the natural rate hypothesis and,
therefore, also the desirability of a retaliatory rule over policy
discretion. Israeli retaliation for the 1972 Munich massacre was the first
Israeli retaliation of unexpectedly large magnitude, and it produced a
temporary deviation of terrorist attacks from the natural rate.
Retaliation has no long-term deterrent or escalation effect.
Byman, Daniel. 1998. The logic of ethnic terrorism.
Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 21: 149-169.
The article
examines the motives, goals, characteristics, group maintenance practices
and potential countermeasures for insurgencies or separatist movements
within states. Concludes that policymakers and analysts of ethnic
(communal or separatist-nationalist) terrorism must recognize its distinct
nature. The author argues for “in group” policing.
Carr, Caleb. 1996. Terrorism as warfare: the lessons
of military history. World Policy Journal 13 (4): 1-12.
Terrorism is
a form of military warfare that can only be eradicated by the armed
forces. As a military tactic, terrorism aims to kill soldiers and lower
the morale of citizens. To combat terrorism, the US armed forces should
attack its military counterparts in countries sponsoring global terrorism.
By focusing on military targets, civilian lives and properties are spared.
The US armed forces can also conduct commando raids to seize and execute
enemy leaders in foreign countries.
Carter, Ashton. 2001. Keeping America’s military
edge. Foreign Affairs 80 (1): 90-105.
The US
military dominates the world, holding a qualitative edge over friend and
foe alike. But that edge may now be slipping. Although the armed forces
themselves remain sharp, the institutions that support them are in
trouble. Bad management and low morale have weakened America’s security
establishment and may soon undermine the nation’s military power.
Washington must make major changes to meet new missions and rising threats
like terrorism.
Carter, Ashton, et al.1998. Catastrophic terrorism. Foreign Affairs
77 (6): 80-94.
The US has
often faced the danger of terrorism, but the danger of catastrophic
terrorism is greater in the late 1990s than it has been at any other time
since the 1962 Cuban missile crisis. The US possesses military
superiority, which makes terrorism one of the few means of aggression that
it faces. The problem is real, and should be addressed by the full efforts
of the Defense Department. More in the way of nuclear deterrence can, and
should, be done. Specific recommendations are discussed.
Chalecki, Elizabeth. 2002. A new vigilance:
Identifying and reducing the risks of environmental terrorism. Global
Environmental Politics (forthcoming).
Chyba, Christopher. 2001. Biological terrorism and
public health. Survival 43 (1): 93-106.
A biological
terrorist attack probably would first be detected by doctors or other
health-care workers. The speed of a response would then depend on their
rapid recognition and communication that certain illnesses appeared out of
the ordinary. For this reason, preparing for biological terrorism has more
in common with confronting the threat of emerging infectious diseases than
with preparing for chemical or nuclear attacks. Defence against
bioterrorism, like protection against emerging diseases, must therefore
rely on improved national and international public-health surveillance.
Too often, thinking about bioterrorism has mimicked thinking about
chemical terrorism, a confusion that leads to an emphasis on the wrong
approaches in preparing to meet the threat.
Cillufo, Frank &
Thomas Tomarchio. 1998. Responding to new terrorist threats. Orbis
42 (3): 439-452.
The authors
argue that federal and state governments can thwart terrorist attacks that
use weapons of mass destruction by deploying the National Guard and
reserve forces and by recognizing that new approaches are needed to
enhance emergency readiness and deal with new threats to national
security. The training administered to police and fire departments in 120
US cities should also be given to chosen units in the reserves. In
addition, decontamination and chemical detection equipment and supplies
should be made available to both National Guard and Army reserve units and
not just to active duty units.
Cooper, H. 2001. Terrorism: the problem of definition
revisited. American Behavioral Scientist 44 (6): 881-893.
How can terrorism be
defined when the process of defining is wholly frustrated by the presence
of irreconcilable antagonisms? It is certainly not easy to define, much
less comprehend, the concept. Among the many participants engaged in the
discussion, there is virtually no agreement on the basic nature of the
concept. In any case, the definition of terrorism has undergone several
small refinements as experience has suggested even further dimensions.
This article considers how to define terrorism or at least know it when it
is seen in the coming decades.
Crenshaw, Martha. 2000. The psychology of terrorism:
An agenda for the 21st century. Political Psychology 21 (2):
405-420.
Research on political terrorism, which
began in the early 1970s, faces some persistent problems. These involve
defining the concept, collecting empirical data, building integrative
theory, and avoiding the attribution of terrorism to personality disorders
or “irrationality.” Analysis risks being driven by events or the concerns
of policymakers. Nevertheless, it is generally accepted that
psychological explanations of terrorism must take multiple levels of
analysis into account, linking the individual to the group and to
society. Future research should critically examine the assumption that a
“new terrorism” has appeared at the end of the 20th century.
Analysts should also take advantage of 30 years of history to develop
comparisons and developmental studies that look not only at the causes of
terrorism but at changes in terrorist strategy, the termination of
terrorist campaigns, government decision-making, and policy effectiveness.
Crenshaw, Martha. 1992. Current research on
terrorism: the academic perspective. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism
15 (1): 1-11.
Studies of
terrorism and political violence generally have been of three kinds. Two
explain violence of an individual or group by recourse to psychological
facts about the individual or group. Thus, large-scale aggregate studies
such as Gurr’s relative deprivation theory seeks to explain group violence
in terms of frustration-aggression psychological theory. Similar
psychological facts might be cited to explain individual behavior. An
alternative explanation views violence as a rational solution to a
problem. The study of terrorism needs to precisely delineate empirical
phenomena without excluding explanations a priori.
Deutch, John. 1997. Terrorism. Foreign Policy
(Fall): 10-22.
An
analysis of international terrorism indicates that it has decreased
steadily with the lowest number of incidents reported in 1996. However, a
closer look shows that there is a possibility of using more sophisticated
means of mass destruction other than the ones previously used.
Eagan, Sean. 1996. From spikes to bombs: The rise of
eco-terrorism. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 19:1-18.
The article
examines the use of criminal violence to promote environmental causes,
discusses terrorist groups and tactics (chiefly in the US). It also
reviews the nature and history of environmental terrorism, and the
philosophical justifications of its perpetrators. Offers case studies of
Greenpeace, Sea Shepherds, Orcaforce, Earth First!, Dark Harvest, and
other groups.
Elias,
Robert. 1995. Violence is the answer. Peace Review 7 (3/4):
289-305.
The
author argues that terrorism--an “illegitimate” form of violence--pales by
comparison to “legitimate” forms of violence perpetrated by governments
and corporations. This institutional and structural violence and is far
more pervasive, insidious and damaging than terrorism.
Emerson, Steven. 1995. The other fundamentalists: A
look inside the radical Islamist Network within the US. New Republic
212 (24): 21-28.
While
the vast majority of American Muslims are law-abiding citizens, groups
such as the Muslim Arab Youth Association, Hamas, the Islamic Association
for Palestine, and the Islamic Concern Project use US religious rights to
conceal fundraising used for terrorism, both at home and abroad.
Emerson, Steven. 1991. When earth takes the hit:
Environmental terrorism throughout history. International Wildlife
21 (4): 38-41.
The article
explores the history of environmental terrorism--that is, the deliberate
damaging of the environment to achieve political goals--arguing that such
acts are not new. The article also examines soviet military doctrine
which advocates various methods of damaging the environment or harnessing
nature’s destructive power for tactical and strategic benefit.
Enders, Walter & Todd Sandler. 2000. Is transnational
terrorism becoming more threatening? A time-series investigation.
Journal of Conflict Resolution 44 (3): 307-332.
This
study applies time-series techniques to investigate the current threat
posed by transnational terrorism. Although the number of terrorist
incidents has dropped dramatically during the post-cold war period,
transnational terrorism still presents a significant threat. In recent
years, each incident is almost 17 percentage points more likely to result
in death or injuries. Three alternative casualties series (incidents with
injuries and/or deaths, the proportion of incidents with casualties, and
incidents with deaths) are investigated. These series increased in
November 1979 with the takeover of the US embassy in Tehran and again
after the fourth quarter of 1991. The growth of religious terrorism
appears to account for the increased severity of terrorist attacks since
the last quarter of 1991. All three casualties series displayed more
deterministic factors than the noncasualties series, which is largely
random after detrending. Cycles in the aggregate incident series are
solely attributable to the underlying casualties series.
Enders, Walter & Todd Sandler. 1999. Transnational
terrorism in the post-Cold War era. International Studies Quarterly
43 (1): 145-167.
The
article uncovers evidence that the end of the Cold War has provided a
dividend in terms of reduced transnational terrorism. Significant
short-run and long-run effects are quantified with time-series analysis to
be concentrated in reduced bombings and hostage-taking incidents.
Presumably, this dividend is the result of less state-sponsorship of
terrorism by the Commonwealth of Independent States and other states, as
well as the result of measures taken by industrial states to thwart
terrorist attacks. A dividend does not appear until the last three
quarters of 1994, at which time moves were well under way to integrate
Eastern Europe with the West. Moreover, prior to this period, significant
efforts had been made among Western nations to augment cooperative efforts
to curb terrorism and to bring terrorists to justice. Using data for 1970
through mid-1996, the authors also examine trends and cycles in terrorist
modes of attack. There is virtually no evidence of an upward trend in
transnational terrorism, contrary to media characterizations. All types of
terrorist incidents display cycles whose duration lengthens with
logistical complexity. Any change in these cycles in the post-Cold War era
is concentrated in the high-frequency or short-lived cycles.
Enders, Walter & Todd Sandler. 1993. The
effectiveness of antiterrorism policies: A vector-autoregression-intervention
analysis. American Political Science Review 87 (4): 829-844.
Using
quarterly data from 1968 to 1988, the authors analyze the time series
properties of the various attack modes used by transnational terrorists.
Combining vector autoregression and intervention analysis, we find strong
evidence of both substitutes and complements among the attack modes. The
authors also evaluate the effectiveness of six policies designed to thwart
terrorism. The existence of complements and substitutes means that
policies designed to reduce one type of attack may affect other attack
modes. For example, the installation of metal detectors in airports
reduced skyjackings and diplomatic incidents but increased other kinds of
hostage attacks (barricade missions and assassinations). The Reagan “get
tough” policy, which resulted in the enactment of two laws in 1984 and a
retaliatory raid on Libya in 1986, did not have any noticeable long-term
effect on curbing terrorist attacks directed against US interests
Eppright, Charles. 1997. Counterterrorism and
conventional military force: The relationship between political effect and
utility. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 20 (4): 333-344.
The article
argues that use of conventional armed forces in punitive operations does
not constitute an effective political response by the US to international
terrorism.
Falkenrath, Richard. 2001. Problems of preparedness:
US readiness for a domestic terrorist attack. International Security
25 (4): 147-186.
The
author discusses the evolution of the United States’ domestic preparedness
program since the mid-1990s. The program, designed to prepare the country
for a domestic terrorist attack with chemical or biological weapons,
suffers from a variety of difficulties. The article traces one of the
program’s largest problems--a lack of integration--to its origins as a
series of multiple, loosely related programs that developed through “a
fragmented, often chaotic policymaking and budgetary process,” rather than
a coherent national strategy. He concludes with several recommendations
for addressing this situation.
Falkenrath, Richard. 1998. Confronting nuclear, biological and chemical
terrorism. Survival 40 (3): 43-66.
Nuclear, biological or chemical weapons of
mass-destruction (WMDs) have been recognized as a military threat by
national security leaders in industrialized nations, but little attention
has traditionally been given to the fact that WMDs could be used by a
non-state or transnational force in a campaign of mass-destruction
terrorism. However, this situation is now beginning to change. Growing
concern with the possibility of terrorists using nuclear, biological or
chemical weapons is justified, as such terrorism would cause significant
damage.
Flynn, Stephen. 2000. Beyond border control: Stopping
terrorists. Foreign Affairs 79 (6): 57-68.
The
global economy pens national borders to goods and people, legal and
illegal. Narcotics, disease, illegal immigrants, and terrorists and their
weapons: all enjoy easier passage than ever before. Fortifying the
frontiers is no solution -- it would slow down trade and globalization.
International companies and government regulators need to invest in new
technologies to help border control keep pace with booming commerce. Then
they must learn to cooperate with one another.
Fox, Jonathan. 1999. Do religious institutions
support violence or the status quo? Studies in Conflict and Terrorism
22 (2): 119-139.
Explores the
role of religious institutions in cases of ethnic conflict and the
circumstances that drive them to either facilitate or inhibit political
opposition among ethnic and religious minorities. Based on data for 105
ethno-religious minorities from the Minorities at Risk Project, 1992-93.
Foxell, Joseph. 2001. Current trends in agroterrorism
and their potential impact on food security. Studies in Conflict and
Terrorism 24 (2): 107-129.
The article
describes the threat posed to the US agricultural infrastructure by
terrorists conducting concentrated viral, botanical, or bacteriological
germ warfare-style attacks against poultry, livestock, agricultural
produce, animal feed, cereal grain crops, plant seeds, and municipal water
supplies. Also examines the motivation for and potential economic impact
of such attacks. Weighs risks of state-sponsored agroterrorism and radical
terrorist groups involved in drug trafficking.
Fromkin, David. 1975. The strategy of terrorism.
Foreign Affairs 53 (4): 683-698.
Garrett, Laurie. 2001. The nightmare of bioterrorism.
Foreign Affairs 80 (1): 76-89.
Biological
terrorism is now a greater menace than ever, yet the world remains
woefully unprepared to protect itself. Public health systems must
stockpile vaccines and develop response strategies—but they risk losing
legitimacy if governments continue to rely on the military and the police
for defense against bioterrorism. It is time to seriously rethink the US
approach to this deadly threat.
Gerecht, Reuel.
2001. The terrorists’ encyclopedia (Afghanistan: Two visits to the
north). Middle East Quarterly
8 (3): 73-87.
A former US
CIA specialist and journalist describes his journey into northern
Afghanistan to meet United Front military leader Ahmed Shah Masood and
understand the role of the Taliban military forces. Topics include the
discovery of a manual for terrorists, including information on weapons and
explosives dedicated to international terrorist Osama bin Laden; Masood’s
view of US policy toward Afghanistan; the history of the CIA’s role in
Afghanistan; and the failure of US intelligence to discover bin Laden’s
strengths and weaknesses.
Gerecht, Reuel. 2001. The counterterrorist myth.
Atlantic Monthly 288 (1): 38-42.
The
author, a former high-level CIA operative, argues that the CIA’s efforts
to infiltrate bin Ladin’s terrorist organization in Peshawar have been
ineffective and misguided. The article highlights the difficulty of
obtaining good intelligence about any tightly organized fringe group that
may be targeting the US.
Goldberg, Jeffrey. 2001. The martyr strategy. New
Yorker 77 (18): 34.
Issues concerning the significance of international terrorism originated
in the Middle East are discussed. Particular attention is given to
Palestinian, Islamic and Israeli conflicts. Details of terrorist leaders
and events are described.
Halkides, Mihalis. 1995. How not to study terrorism. Peace Review 7
(3/4): 253-260.
Hamilton, Lawrence & James Hamilton. 1983. Dynamics
of terrorism. International Studies Quarterly 27 (1): 39-54.
There are
important controversies over the dynamics of terrorism which have not yet
been formally addressed in quantitative social research. This article
suggests a class of stochastic models for social contagion which may help
to shed light on these controversies. Empirical estimates of model
parameters were obtained from data on international terrorism in 16
countries over 1968-78. The authors find some evidence suggesting that the
tendency of acts of terrorism to incite further violence is more easily
reversed in less democratic, poorer, and less well-educated societies.
This suggests that the reversal of a terrorism “epidemic” is more likely
under conditions facilitating repression rather than reform, and that more
open societies face particular difficulties in responding to terrorism
effectively.
Henderson, Donald.
1999.The looming threat of bioterrorism. Science 283 (5406): 1279.
Biological
weapons have recently attracted the attention and the resources of US
government officials. Discerning the nature of the threat of bioweapons as
well as appropriate responses to them requires greater attention to the
biological characteristics of these instruments of war and terror. The
dominant paradigm of a weapon as a nuclear device that explodes or a
chemical cloud that is set adrift leaves us ill-equipped conceptually and
practically to assess and thus to prevent the potentially devastating
effects of bioterrorism. Strengthening the public health and infectious
disease infrastructure is an effective step toward averting the suffering
that could be wrought by a terrorist’s use of a biological agent.
Hoffman, Bruce. 1999. Is Europe soft on terrorism?
Foreign Policy (Summer): 62.
The article
compares Western European/European Union and US approaches to
international terrorism and counterterrorism policies. The author argues
that the US tends to view counterterrorism as a global war, while
Europeans give priorities to terrorism that affects them domestically.
Hoffman, Bruce. 1999. The mind of the terrorist:
Perspectives from social psychology.Psychiatric Annals 29 (6):
337-340.
The
author raises three point: (1) the tactics, targets and weapons that a
terrorist group favors are shaped by the group’s ideology, its internal
organizational dynamics, and the personalities of key members; (2) all
terrorist groups live for the future, that is, the future rather than the
present defines reality; and (3) the history of terrorist groups shows
that ethno-nationalist groups (e.g. the PLO, IRA, ETA) have lasted the
longest and been most successful.
Hoffman, Bruce. 1997. Terrorism: who is fighting
whom? World Policy Journal 14 (1): 97-104.
This article is a response to an article
by Caleb Carr that previously appeared in World Policy Journal.
Hoffman argues that Carr’s proposal to end terrorism through offensive
military action against terrorists’ state sponsors is flawed and fails to
consider the lessons the lessons of history. Though considered as a form
of warfare, terrorism cannot be stemmed by mere military intervention.
Counterterrorist strategies will be more effective if psychological,
economic and diplomatic approaches are considered.
Hoffman, Bruce. 1995. “Holy Terror:” The implications
of terrorism motivated by a religious imperative. Studies in Conflict
and Terrorism 18 (4): 271-285.
The author
argues that terrorist groups moved by religious motivations have become a
significant feature of international terrorism since 1980. These groups
are more dangerous than secular groups since they consider violence a
divine duty. Religious terrorism is not only limited to Islamic terrorist
groups in the Middle East but is also found among American Christian white
supremacists and among radical Indian Sikh movements.
Hoffman, Bruce. 1992. Current research on terrorism
and low-intensity conflict. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 15
(1): 25-38.
Policy-relevant research in terrorism and low-intensity conflict (LIC) is
in great demand as the trend toward non-state actors engaging in
nonconventional warfare continues. Eleven terrorist groups were
identifiable in 1968, while there are 74 in 1992. Terrorism will increase
in the 1990s unless ways are found to break the training cycle for
successive generations. LIC study has come into its own, and seems to have
learned from US involvement in Vietnam and El Salvador. Security concerns
throughout the world require the US to have innovative policy options with
which to confront terrorism and LICs.
Howard, Shawn. 2000. The Afghan connection: Islamic
extremism in Central Asia.
National Security Studies Quarterly 6 (3):
25-54.
The article
examines the war in Tajikistan, the situation in Uzbekistan, the rise of
the Taliban, drug trafficking, and the recent rash of Central Asian
terrorism and fundamentalism in light of the interaction between
Afghanistan and Central Asia. The author assesses the prospects for the
future and offers US policy recommendations.
Jenkins, Brian.
1986. Defense against terrorism. Political Science Quarterly 101
(5): 773-786.
The article
reflects on the impact of international terrorism—not a threat to the
common defense the framers of the US Constitution had in mind nor a kind
of war that our armed forces have been trained for, but nevertheless, a
rising threat to Americans and American institutions.
Jensen, Carl. 2001. Beyond the tea leaves: Futures
research and terrorism. American Behavioral Scientist 44 (6):
914-936.
No
one can predict the future. The study of futures research, however, offers
insights that may assist in foreseeing certain trends that will affect
future events. The article employs a modified version of one futures
research methodology--i.e. cross-impact analysis--to study the
interactions of four trends that will likely influence the future of
international terrorism: the expanded use of the Internet on the
international level, the effects of emerging ethnic and religious
sensibilities, the growing economic gap between rich and poor, and the
continued role of the United States as the world’s predominant superpower.
Johnson, Larry. 2001. The future of terrorism.
American Behavioral Scientist 44 (6): 894-913.
Despite
pundit hysteria and media hyperbole, the actual threat of terrorism has
shrunk in recent years. The decline, which commenced during the late
1980s, includes reductions in the number of incidents, groups, and
fatalities. Although the 1990s saw a significant increase in the number of
people injured in terrorist attacks, fewer than 1% of the incidents caused
more than 70% of the injuries. Radical Islamic groups account for only a
small percentage of terrorist attacks but are disproportionately
responsible for casualties. The decline and containment of terrorism
hinges on the reluctance of states to sponsor terrorist attacks, the
spread of democracy, and more effective anti-terrorist and
counterterrorist methods.
Juergensmeyer, Mark. 2000. Understanding the new
terrorism. Current History 99 (636): 158-163.
The article
examines the rise of a new form of terrorism, which primarily based on
religion. For this religious-based terrorism, violence is seen more as a
symbolic act than a strategic act. In addition, religious-based terrorism
is fosters a worldview of cosmic warfare between good and evil that
justifies violence. The author argues for a legal rather than a military
response by the international community.
Kuhr, Steven & Jerome Hauer. 2001. The threat of
biological terrorism in the new millennium. American Behavioral
Scientist 44 (6): 1032-1041.
The use of biological weapons in times of
war has a long and detailed history in the 20th century. Today,
analysts, law enforcement, and intelligence experts suggest that
biological weapons may be used to cause mass illness and death by
terrorists domestically and internationally. In fact, an incident of
biological terrorism was perpetrated on the citizens of a rural Oregon
community in 1984. Government agencies at the local, state, and federal
levels must establish programs to detect natural or intentional epidemics
early so as to afford the maximum protection for citizens by way of mass
prophylaxis and mass medical care.
Laqueur, Walter. 1996. Postmodern terrorism.
Foreign Affairs 75 (5): 24-37.
Contrary to what many believe terrorism is not a recent phenomenon, as it
has existed in some form for over a century. Political leaders in the
Group of Seven are correct in considering it a top priority problem, as
there is danger it may become more widespread, due to religious extremism
and the coming millennium. This is true even if the political gains
supposedly sought by terrorists through their actions have been virtually
nonexistent. The article examines what governments can do to address this
threat.
Lawler, Andrew.
2000. Debate flares over tracking foreigners. Science 290 (5495):
1276.
The article
examines a controversial anti-terrorist program that tracks foreign
students.
Lewis, Bernard. 1990. The roots of Muslim rage.
Atlantic Monthly 266 (3): 47-60 .
Why so many
Muslims deeply resent the West, and why their bitterness will not easily
be mollified.
Lluma, Diego. 1999. Terrorism: Low probability, high
consequence. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 55 (6) 14-16.
If
bioterrorism has a low probability, its consequences are high, and the
latter fact has won the attention of policy makers. Clinton decided to
spend $1.4 billion in 2000 to combat chemical and biological terrorism.
Although most experts agree that terrorists, acting alone, cannot inflict
massive casualties, some are concerned that terrorists and rogue states
might get together. Others fear underpaid scientists in the former Soviet
Union might be tempted to provide terrorists with deadly materials--such
as small pox--for terrorist attacks. Although such weapons might not
cause mass casualties, they would have an enormous psychological affect
and provoke political crises. Responses to this kind of attack--both
technological and institutional--appear to be limited.
Luckabaugh, Robert, Edward Fuqua, Joseph Cangemi and
Casimir Kowalski. 1997. Terrorist behavior and US foreign policy: Who is
the enemy? Some psychological and political perspectives. Psychology
34 (2): 1-15.
The article
concerns the various types of terrorists, the motivation propelling an
individual to become a terrorist, state-sponsored terrorism and other
terrorist activity, and the quandary currently facing the US and its
allies in dealing with this unconventional threat.
Mahmood, Cynthia. 2001. Terrorism, myth, and the
power of ethnographic praxis. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 30 (5):
520-545.
Terrorism,
like witchcraft, is a concept that anthropology can aid in deconstructing.
The mythos of “the terrorist” has become part of the political drama of
our time despite a lack of concreteness in its definition. Drawing on a
decade of ethnographic research with Sikh separatist militants, this
article focuses on how the imagining of terror has replaced the reality of
armed conflict among the Sikhs in Western legal and policy settings.
Specific examples of anthropological intervention in this arena illustrate
how face-to-face knowledge can contribute to greater accuracy in judicial
and legislative decisions regarding terrorism. Given the life-and-death
importance of these decisions, anthropologists of conscience are called on
to offer the very special grassroots perspective they have as policies are
developed nationally and internationally, bringing the grassroots realism
of ethnography into courtrooms, halls of parliaments, and executive
offices around the world.
Matthew, Richard A.
& George Shambaugh. 1998. Sex, drugs and heavy metal: Transnational
threats and national vulnerabilities. Security Dialogue 29 (2):
163-175.
The national
security threat posed by terrorism, infectious disease, the drug trade,
and arms trafficking is intensifying. These new threats are transnational
in nature; that is, they are embedded in an international web of
incentives, opportunities, and capabilities. This means they pose a unique
security challenge. The authors suggest ways for dealing with these
threats beyond the traditional state-centric approach.
Mushtaq, Najum. 1999. Islam
distorted. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 55 (4): 53-57.
Militant Islamists
are gaining power in many areas of the world and are distorting the ideals
of Islam. Ironically, many of the militant Islamists were created during
the Afghans’ struggle against the Soviet communists who invaded their
country in 1979. They were supported in the struggle by the US, but many
veterans of the war have moved on to other conflicts, such as the one in
Kashmir, and to terrorism, sometimes against the US.
O’Brien, Conor. 1977. Liberty and terrorism.
International Security 2 (2): 56-67.
The article
concerns those situations in which democratic governments, working under
the rule of law, are confronted by armed organizations seeking to attain
political objectives by the use of violence. The author describes how
each side sees itself as upholding the cause of liberty, yet the two sides
employ divergent, and indeed irreconcilable, conceptions of liberty. In
addition the author points out the difficulties that democracies face in
achieving a political or a military solution to the problem of terrorism.
Oliverio, Anna. 1997. The state of injustice: The
politics of terrorism and the production of order. International
Journal of Comparative Sociology 38 (1): 48-63.
The concept
of terrorism, as it is used in contemporary research and media texts,
emerges from 18th and 19th century orthodox assumptions of man,
nation-state, and political sovereignty. In this article, terrorism is
examined as a discursive process in the art of statecraft. The discursive
processes of two ostensible cultures of terrorism are compared: the United
States and Italy. The analysis reveals the inextricable link between
terrorism, statecraft, and the production of domination, injustice, and
social order.
Ranstorp, Magnus. 1998. Interpreting the broader
context and meaning of Bin-Laden’s “fatwa.” Studies in Conflict and
Terrorism 21 (4): 321-330.
The article analyzes the phenomenon of
Sheikh Bin-Laden in international terrorism, his 1996 “Declaration of
War,” and the inner logic of his February 1998 fatwa issued with a
coalition of other Islamic movements. Includes the text of the World
Islamic Front’s statement urging “jihad against Jews and crusaders,”
printed in the London-based Arabic newspaper al-Quds al-Arabi.
Ranstorp,
Magnus. 1996. Terrorism in the name of religion. Journal of
International Affairs 50 (1): 41-62.
There
appear to be trends in the recent wave of religious terrorism. Groups that
engage in religious terrorism have typically formed in response to an
economic, political, or social crisis coming from either within or outside
the group or country. They attempt to further their cause by resorting to
well-orchestrated violence. These religious groups rationalize their
behavior by claiming divine authority. They target their violence towards
specific symbols of their enemies on historically significant dates.
Terrorist groups active since the 1970’s have also formed politically
active grassroots organizations.
Rapoport, David.
1999. Terrorism and weapons of the apocalypse. National Security
Studies Quarterly 5 (3): 49-67.
The author
argues that national atomic arsenals pose a greater threat as potential
weapons of mass destruction than biological and chemical weapons in the
hands of terrorists, and that states and secular groups have historically
resorted to biological and chemical weapons more often than religious
groups. The case of the March 1995 nerve gas attack in Tokyo (carried out
by the Aum Shinrikyo religious cult) is discussed.
Rapoport, David. 1984.
Fear and trembling: Terrorism in three religious traditions. American
Political Science Review 78 (3): 658-677.
As the first
comparative study of religious terror groups, the article provides
detailed analyses of the different doctrines and methods of the three
best-known groups: the Thugs, the Assassins, and the Zealots-Sicarii.
Despite a primitive technology, each developed much more durable and
destructive organizations than has any modern secular group. The
differences among the groups reflect the distinguishing characteristics of
their respective originating religious communities: Hinduism, Islam, and
Judaism. The distinctive characteristics of religious terror are
discussed, and relationships between religious and secular forms of terror
are suggested.
Rashid, Ahmed. 1999. The Taliban: Exporting
extremism. Foreign Affairs 78 (6): 22-35.
Across one
of the world’s most sensitive regions, radical Islam and repressive
politics are gaining ground. As they consolidate their power over
Afghanistan, the Taliban are starting to destabilize the entire
surrounding area -- and beyond. Muslim fundamentalists from around the
globe study revolution under their tutelage, rebel armies find sanctuary
on their turf, and the drugs and other goods that are smuggled out of the
country are undermining the economies of Afghanistan’s Central Asian
neighbors. The Great Game has changed, and the West must learn the new
rules.
Roy, Oliver, Bruce Hoffman, Reuven Paz, Steven Simon
and Daniel Benjamin. 2000. America and the new terrorism: An exchange.
Survival 42 (2): 156-172.
A group of experts assess to an article on
terrorism by Steven Simon and Daniel Benjamin that previously appeared in
Suvival. After comments by Roy, Hoffman and Paz, Simon and Benjamin
respond to their critics.
Sapolsky, Harvey, et al. 1999. Security lessons from the cold war.
Foreign Affairs 78
(4): 77-89.
The US has
amassed an impressive arsenal of weapons throughout the Cold War, which
has prompted foreign enemies to resort to terrorism and sabotage. Direct
attacks have become more unlikely after the public displays of Americans
power in Iraq and Serbia, leaving terrorism as the main threat to the
safety of the country.
Schwartz, Daniel. 1998. Environmental terrorism:
analyzing the concept. Journal of Peace Research 35 (4): 483-497.
The term
“environmental terrorism” has found its way into North American politics,
media, and academia. The concept of environmental terrorism, however,
remains an ambiguous one. When is it appropriate to call environmental
destruction environmental terrorism? To date, the term has been misused by
North American politicians, media, and academics. In this article the
author presents a taxonomy that allows one to systematically discern the
types of environmental destruction that can legitimately be labeled
“terrorism” and those that can be labeled “environmental terrorism.”
Environmental destruction or the threat thereof can be labeled terrorism
when: (1) the act or threat breaches national and/or international laws
governing the disruption of the environment during peacetime or wartime;
and (2) the act or threat exhibits the fundamental characteristics of
terrorism (i.e. an act or threat of violence with specific objectives, and
where the violence is aimed at a symbolic target). An act of environmental
destruction can be termed “environmental terrorism” only when the two
latter criteria are met, and when the environment is used by the
perpetrator as an authentic symbol that instills fear in the larger
population over the ecological consequences of the act.
Shultz, Richard, et at. 1994. Emerging regional
conflicts and US interests: Challenges and responses in the 1990s.
Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 17 (1): 1-22
The article
examines how interlinked issues such as ethnicity, nationalism, religion,
economic inequality, environmental deterioration and political ideology
contribute to the post-Cold War instability in several regions of the
world. The proliferation of weapons, terrorism and international drug
trafficking have initiated the trend of solving problems by violent means.
The US’s response to security and economic threats must encourage regional
regimes to achieve greater stability.
Simon, Steven & Daniel Benjamin. 2000. America and
the new terrorism. Survival 42 (1): 59-75.
The 1990s
saw the emergence of a new, religiously motivated terrorism that neither
relies on the support of sovereign states nor is constrained by limits on
violence. Its harbingers include the 1993 World Trade Center bombing in
New York; the 1995 sarin gas attack in the Tokyo subway; the 1996 bombing
of the Oklahoma City federal building; and the 1998 East Africa bombings.
In their effort to inflict damage on a grand scale, some practitioners of
the new terrorism seek to acquire weapons of mass destruction. Although no
single individual bears responsibility, the face of the new terrorism
belongs to Osama bin Laden, the exiled Saudi who has marshaled a network
of operatives in more than 50 countries. Officials in Washington believe
that religiously motivated terrorism will persists for many years, forcing
the US and other countries to develop better means of defense.
Sirrs, Julie. 2001. The Taliban’s international
ambitions. Middle East Quarterly 8 (3): 61-72.
The
international threat posed by the Taliban government in Afghanistan is
examined, focusing on its harboring of international terrorists such as
Usama bin Ladin, its restrictive policies regarding women, and the
military aspects of its fundamentalist Islamic philosophy. Topics include
the Afghan civil war between the Taliban and the United Front, Afghan
foreign relations, interviews with captured foreign Taliban soldiers, and
Usama bin Ladin’s role in Afghan politics.
Smith, Paul. 2000. Transnational security threats and
state survival: A role for the military? Parameters 30 (3): 77-91.
The
article examines debate over use of military force against post-Cold War
threats that are not state-centered, including international terrorism,
organized crime, the spread of infectious disease, growing migrations, and
environmental problems. Also considers law enforcement, public health
challenges and US policy options.
Sprinzak, Ehud. 1998. The great superterrorism scare.
Foreign Policy (Fall): 110-124.
The federal
government seems to be increasingly apprehensive of a terrorist attack
involving chemical, biological or even nuclear weapons, and simulations
and preparations are underway. Although there may be some basis for this
concern, it is questionable whether this approach is needed. The risk
seems relatively low, and the huge costs and extensive preparations may be
inciting all the fear and panic that a terrorist could hope for.
Stern, Jessica. 2000. Pakistan’s Jihad culture.
Foreign Affairs 79 (6): 115-126.
Pakistani militant groups are killing civilians and engaging in terrorism
in Indian-held Kashmir under the guise of holy war. The government in
Islamabad supports these militants and their religious schools as cheap
ways to fight India and educate Pakistan’s youth. But this policy is
creating a culture of violence that exacerbates internal sectarianism and
destabilizes the region. Without change, these trends threaten to devour
Pakistani society.
Stern, Jessica. 1999. Apocalypse never, poison
possible. Survival. Winter. 40 (4): 176-180.
The author evaluates a study on the
threats posed by nuclear, biological or chemical (NBC) terrorism that was
previously published in Survival, raising criticisms and
clarifications. Then, the author of that earlier article, Richard
Falkenrath, responds. Points raised include the social and psychological
effects of NBC attacks, appraisal of casualties likely to result from NBC
attacks and the conditions for the use of NBC weapons by terrorist groups.
Stern, Jessica.
1993. Will terrorists turn to poison? Orbis 37 (3): 393-411.
Terrorist
attacks rarely involve the use of poisons and chemical contaminants,
although the terrorizing capacity of chemical and biological weapons make
them ideal for future terrorists. The threat of mass destruction alone
makes a formidable weapon attractive for terrorists, as seen in the
Chilean incident of 1989. Renegade states in unstable parts of the world
are potential sponsors of chemical and biological attacks.
Tucker, Johnathan. 2000. Chemical and biological
terrorism: how real a threat?Current History 99 (636): 147-53.
Assesses the threat of toxic terrorism and suggests that it is sufficient
to warrant investment in improved intelligence collection and civil
defense, but not on a massive scale.
Tucker, Jonathan. 1996. Chemical-biological
terrorism: coping with a new threat. Politics and the Life Sciences
15 (2): 167-183.
The fatal
nerve gas attack in a Tokyo subway in March 1995 highlights the emerging
threat of chemical-biological (C-B) terrorism worldwide. Despite the
technical hurdles associated with the production and delivery of C-B
weapons, these arsenals can be obtained by terrorist groups through
scientific know-how and financial resources. A C-B counterterrorism
strategy which combines preemption and civil defense is proposed, to
ensure the survival of democratic societies. Several short-term and
longer-term policy options for mitigating the dangerous trend of C-B
terrorism are also suggested.
Tucker, Jonathan and Amy Sands. 1999. An unlikely
threat. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 55 (4): 46-52.
The
threat of biological and chemical terrorism is a widespread and recurring
theme among government officials and in the media. However, the fact is
that only one person has died as a result of such attack in the US in the
last 100 years.
Vachon, Gordon. 1996. Responding to the threat of
chemical-biological terrorism:International dimensions revisited. Politics and
the Life Sciences 15 (2): 230-232.
This article is a response to an article
on chemical and biological terrorism by Jonathan Tucker that appears in
this same issue of Politics and the Life Sciences. The author
argues that more value can be added to Tucker’s useful threat analysis and
prescriptive dimensions which focus on the US. International efforts, such
as the Chemical Weapons Convention, which moots the idea of domestic
legislation are necessary to tackle chemical and biological terrorism.
International support for the epidemiological monitoring programs of the
World Health Organization is also necessary. Further, global cooperation
on strategies to detect chemical and biological agents is required.
Countries should unite to share intelligence to prevent future threats of
terrorism.
Van Creveld, Martin. 1996. In wake of terrorism,
modern armies prove to be dinosaurs of defense. New Perspectives
Quarterly 13 (4): 57-59.
It has been
proved many times over that the modern army, designed for conventional
warfare, cannot respond effectively to terrorism and other forms of
irregular warfare. Even with all of its sophisticated technologies, in the
face of a faceless opponent, the armed forces are almost completely
inutile. Some countries are responding to the situation by re-training
their soldiers to handle intra- instead of interstate struggle and
restructuring their system. Others still refuse to accept the realities of
the late 20th-century, continuing to design super-powerful but totally
ineffective weapons.
Watkins, Rodney. 1995. Making sense of terrorism. Peace Review 7
(3/4): 307.
The
author considers the problem of defining terrorism, the importance of
seeing terrorism as an activity that implicates the state, and the need to
address root causes including: social injustice, poverty, and class and
cultural divisions.
Weaver, Mary. 1996. Blowback. Atlantic Monthly 277 (5): 24.
In an
effort to support the Afghan rebels in their war against the Soviet-backed
Afghanistan government, the CIA provided billions of dollars in weapons to
an alliance of resistance groups. This fratricidal alliance grew,
established bases throughout the world and later engaged in terrorist acts
against the US.
Wilkinson, Paul. 1996. The role of the military in
combating terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence 8 (3) 1-11.
Wilkinson, Paul. 1996. How to combat the reign of
terror. New Statesman 125 (4295): 12.
Terrorism threatens the developing world, the former Soviet
countries, and the western democracies. Improving security for
international aviation will require multinational cooperation. The best
approach to some problems is bilateral and cross-border cooperation.
Young, Robert. 1995.“Monkeywrenching” and the
processes of democracy. Environmental Politics 4 (4): 199-215.
The author
argues that the strategy adopted by many radical environmentalists of
interfering with industrial and commercial processes that are damaging to
the environment, often called “monkeywrenching,” reinforces the democratic
process. Monkeywrenchers seek to draw public attention to the need for
environmental reforms. Critics claim this to be a form of ecological
terrorism. However, supporters equate it with civil disobedience.
Monkeywrenchers take risks because they have moral convictions backing
their actions. Democratic structures that allow them to mobilize public
opinion get reinforced by their actions.
Zanini, Michele. 1999. Middle Eastern terrorism and
netwar. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 22 (3): 247-256.
The article
assess the use of information technology, including the Internet, by
loosely structured, decentralized terrorist groups such as Hamas, the bin
Laden organization, and Egypt’s Islamic Group. The issue includes a
collection of articles under the overall title: “Special issue: Netwar
across the spectrum of conflict,” extracted from the book “Countering the
new terrorism,” published by RAND, 1999.
Book Chapters
Rapoport, David. 1999. Terrorism. In Encyclopedia
of Violence, Peace, and Conflict Volume 3. San Diego: Academic
Publishers. 497-510.
Wilkinson, Paul. 2000. The strategic implications of
terrorism. In Terrorism and Political Violence: A Sourcebook.
Edited by M.L.Sondhi. Har-anand Publications, India. 19-49.
Books
Alexander, Yonah & Milton Hoenig (eds). 2001.
Super terrorism: biological, chemical, and nuclear. Ardsley, NY:
Transnational Publishers.
Chadwick, Elizabeth. 1996. Self-determination,
terrorism, and the international humanitarian law of armed conflict.
Boston: Kluwer.
Chomsky, Noam. 1988. The Culture of Terrorism.
Boston: South End Press.
Cilluffo, Frank, et al. 2001. Combating chemical,
biological, radiological, and nuclear terrorism: a comprehensive strategy:
a report of the CSIS Homeland Defense Project. Washington DC: Center
for Strategic and International Studies.
Cooley, John. 2000. Unholy wars: Afghanistan, America and international
terrorism. London: Pluto Press.
Gilbert, Paul. 1994. Terrorism, security, and nationality: an
introductory study in applied political philosophy. New York:
Routledge.
Falkenrath, Richard, et al. 1998. America’s
Achilles’ heel: Nuclear, biological, and chemical terrorism and covert
attack. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Guelke, Adrian. 1995. The age of terrorism and the international
political system. New York. St Martin’s Press.
Heymann, Philip. 1998. Terrorism and America: a commonsense strategy
for a democratic society. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Focuses on
the more calculating forms of political violence and domestic and
international responses that do not threaten US institutions, liberty, and
democracy. Topics include international terrorism, hostage and other
negotiations, international cooperation against terrorism, state-sponsored
terrorism and retaliation, using the criminal justice system, and domestic
intelligence-gathering and processing in the US.
Hoffman, Bruce. 1999. Terrorism and weapons of
mass destruction: An analysis of trends and motivations (RAND Paper
P-8039-1). Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
Although the conventional
wisdom previously held that terrorists were more interested in publicity
than in killing, recent terrorist attacks—such as the 1995 nerve gas
attack in a Tokyo subway and the bombing of a federal government office
building in Oklahoma City—have either crossed into the domain of use of
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) or involved the deliberate infliction of
large numbers of causalities. This book examines three reasons that may
account for terrorism’s increasing lethality: (1) the proliferation of
religious terrorism, in which violence assumes a transcendental dimension;
(2) the rise of “amateur” terrorists—loosely organized groups of
individuals with particular grievances who are able to gain WMD expertise
from publicly available sources; and (3) the growing sophistication and
competence of professional terrorist organizations. A confluence of new
motives, opportunities, and capabilities could impel any of these groups
to employ a chemical, biological, or nuclear weapon or radioactive device.
Given this treat, all states should consider terrorism a serious security
issue.
Hoffman, Bruce. 1998. Inside terrorism. New
York: Columbia University Press.
Focuses on
salient and important trends, both past and present, and likely future
patterns and potentialities. Partial contents include: The post-colonial
era: ethno-nationalist/separatist terrorism; The internationalization of
terrorism; Religion and terrorism; Terrorism, the media and public
opinion; The modern terrorist mindset; Tactics, targets and technologies.
Lesser, Ian, et al. 1999. Countering the new
terrorism (RAND Paper MR-989-AF). Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
The contours of
terrorism are changing, and the new terrorism has more diverse sources,
motivations, and tactics than the old. It is more lethal, global in reach,
and characterized by network forms of organization. Terrorist sponsorship
is becoming hazier and “privatized.” The August 1998 terrorist bombings of
US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania fit the new mold in many ways. The
chapters in this book trace the evolution of international terrorism
against civilian and US military targets, predict the future directions of
terrorism, and assess how it might be contained. Terrorism and
counterterrorism are placed in strategic perspective, including the ways
that terrorism might be applied as an asymmetric strategy by less capable
adversaries.
Long, David. 1990. The anatomy of terrorism.
New York: Free Press.
Includes brief profiles of 80 terrorist groups, active over the last 20
years. The book examines the social, political, and economic factors that
shape terrorism; government strategies in combating terrorism.
Morris, Christopher (ed). 1991. Violence,
terrorism, and justice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
The book
considers whether terrorism and violence committed for a “just cause” can
ever be justified. Partial contents include: “Violent Demonstrations” by
Annette Baier; “Nuclear Hostages” by Gregory Kavka; “Rape as a Terrorist
Institution” by Claudia Card.
Pillar, Paul. 2001. Terrorism and U.S. foreign
policy. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
Reeve, Simon. 1999. The new jackals: Ramzi Yousef,
Osama Bin Laden and the future of terrorism. Boston: Northeastern
University Press.
Deals with
Yousef’s international terrorist activities, financed by bin Laden’s
Islamic extremist network, and US counterterrorist efforts led by the FBI.
The Feb. 26 1993 World Trade Center bombing, New York City, other bombings
of US targets, including the Aug. 7, 1998 attacks on US embassies in Kenya
and Tanzania, and assassination plots.
Reich, Walter (ed). 1998. Origins of terrorism:
Psychologies, ideologies, theologies, states of mind. Washington DC:
Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
The
book is based on papers prepared for a series of conferences and other
meetings held at the Woodrow Wilson Center for Scholars in Washington D.C.
The contents are grouped under the headings: Strategy or psychology?
Origins of terrorist behavior; Varieties of terrorism: ideological and
religious motivations; States of mind: how do terrorists think?;
Responding to terrorism: Decision making and the pressures on leadership;
The psychology of terrorism: What can we know?
Stern, Jessica. 1999. The Ultimate Terrorists.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Tanter, Raymond. 1999. Rogue regimes: terrorism
and proliferation. New York: St Martin’s.
Tucker, Jonathan (ed). 2000. Toxic Terror:
Assessing Terrorist Use of Chemical
and Biological Weapons. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Van Leeuwen, Marianne. 2000. Crying wolf?
Assessing unconventional terrorism.
The Hague: Netherlands Institute of International
Relations.
U.S. Government Reports
U.S.
Department of State. 2000. Patterns of Global Terrorism.
Washington: US GPO.
http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2000/
U.S.
Department of State. 1999. Patterns of Global Terrorism.
Washington: US GPO. http://www.state.gov/www/global/terrorism/1999report/1999index.html
U.S.
Department of State. 1998. Patterns of Global Terrorism.
Washington: US GPO. http://www.state.gov/www/global/terrorism/1998Report/1998index.html
U.S.
Department of State. 1997. Patterns of Global Terrorism.
Washington: US GPO. http://www.state.gov/www/global/terrorism/1997Report/1997index.html
U.S. Department of State. 1996. Patterns of Global
Terrorism. Washington: US GPO. http://www.state.gov/www/global/terrorism/1996Report/1996index.html
U.S. Congressional Hearings
U.S. Congress. 2001. Current and projected national
security threats to the United States: hearing before the Select Committee
on Intelligence of the United States Senate, February 7, 2001. Washington:
US GPO.
U.S. Congress. 2000. Terrorist threats to the United
States: hearing before the Special Oversight Panel on Terrorism of the
House Armed Services Committee, May 23, 2000. Washington: US GPO.
U.S. Congress. 2000. Combating terrorism:
coordination of non-medical R&D programs: hearing before the House
Subcommittee on National Security, Veterans Affairs, and International
Relations, March 22, 2000. Washington: US GPO.
U.S. Congress. 2000. Combating terrorism: management
of medical supplies: hearing before the House Subcommittee on National
Security, Veterans Affairs, and International Relations, March 8, 2000.
Washington: US GPO.
U.S. Congress. 2000. Worldwide threats: hearing
before the Senate Armed Services Committee, February 3, 2000. Washington:
US GPO.
U.S. Congress. 2000. Current and projected national
security threats to the United States: hearing before the Senate Select
Committee on Intelligence, February 2, 2000. Washington: US GPO.
U.S. Congress. 1999. Worldwide threats: hearings
before the Senate Armed Services Committee, February 2 and April 22, 1999.
Washington: US GPO.
U.S. Congress. 1998. Current and projected national
security threats to the United States: hearing before the Senate Select
Committee on Intelligence, January 28, 1998. Washington: US GPO.
U.S. Congress. 1997. Nuclear terrorism and
countermeasures: hearing before House Subcommittee on Military Research
and Development, October 1 and 2, 1997. Washington: US GPO
U.S. Congress. 1997. Threats to US national security:
hearing before the House Committee on National Security, February 13,
1997. Washington: US GPO.
U.S. Congress. 1997. Current and projected national
security threats to the United States: hearing before the Senate Select
Committee on Intelligence, February 6, 1997. Washington: US GPO.
U.S. Congress. 1996. Current and projected national
security threats to the United States and its interests abroad: hearing
before the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, February 22, 1996.
Washington: US GPO.
U.S. Congress. 1995. Worldwide threats to the United
States: hearing before the Senate Committee on Armed Services, January 17,
1995. Washington: US GPO.
|
